### The [repository now only mirrored on the Github](https://abf.io/erthink/libmdbx) due to illegal discriminatory restrictions for Russian Crimea and for sovereign crimeans.
<!-- Required extensions: pymdownx.betterem, pymdownx.tilde, pymdownx.emoji, pymdownx.tasklist, pymdownx.superfences -->
-----

libmdbx
======================================
Revised and extended descendant of [Lightning Memory-Mapped Database](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightning_Memory-Mapped_Database) (aka _LMDB_).
Русскоязычная версия [здесь](README-RU.md).

_libmdbx_ is superior to LMDB in terms of features and reliability, not
inferior in performance. _libmdbx_ works on Linux, FreeBSD, MacOS X and
other systems compliant with POSIX.1-2008, but also support Windows as a
complementary platform.

The next version is under active non-public development, which will
radically change both the API and the database format. The goal of this
revolution is to provide a clearer and more reliable API, add more
features and new database properties.

*The Future will (be) [Positive](https://www.ptsecurity.com). Всё будет хорошо.*

[![Build Status](https://travis-ci.org/leo-yuriev/libmdbx.svg?branch=master)](https://travis-ci.org/leo-yuriev/libmdbx)
[![Build status](https://ci.appveyor.com/api/projects/status/ue94mlopn50dqiqg/branch/master?svg=true)](https://ci.appveyor.com/project/leo-yuriev/libmdbx/branch/master)
[![Coverity Scan Status](https://scan.coverity.com/projects/12915/badge.svg)](https://scan.coverity.com/projects/reopen-libmdbx)

## Table of Contents
- [Overview](#overview)
    - [Comparison with other databases](#comparison-with-other-databases)
    - [History & Acknowledgments](#history)
- [Description](#description)
    - [Key features](#key-features)
    - [Improvements over LMDB](#improvements-over-lmdb)
    - [Gotchas](#gotchas)
        - [Problem of long-time reading](#problem-of-long-time-reading)
        - [Durability in asynchronous writing mode](#durability-in-asynchronous-writing-mode)
- [Usage](#usage)
    - [Building](#building)
    - [Bindings](#bindings)
- [Performance comparison](#performance-comparison)
    - [Integral performance](#integral-performance)
    - [Read scalability](#read-scalability)
    - [Sync-write mode](#sync-write-mode)
    - [Lazy-write mode](#lazy-write-mode)
    - [Async-write mode](#async-write-mode)
    - [Cost comparison](#cost-comparison)

-----

## Overview
_libmdbx_ is an embedded lightweight key-value database engine oriented
for performance.

_libmdbx_ allows multiple processes to read and update several key-value
tables concurrently, while being
[ACID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACID)-compliant, with minimal
overhead and Olog(N) operation cost.

_libmdbx_ enforce
[serializability](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serializability) for
writers by single
[mutex](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutual_exclusion) and affords
[wait-free](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-blocking_algorithm#Wait-freedom)
for parallel readers without atomic/interlocked operations, while
writing and reading transactions do not block each other.

_libmdbx_ can guarantee consistency after crash depending of operation
mode.

_libmdbx_ uses [B+Trees](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%2B_tree) and
[Memory-Mapping](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory-mapped_file),
doesn't use [WAL](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Write-ahead_logging)
which might be a caveat for some workloads.

### Comparison with other databases
For now please refer to [chapter of "BoltDB comparison with other
databases"](https://github.com/coreos/bbolt#comparison-with-other-databases)
which is also (mostly) applicable to MDBX.

### History
The _libmdbx_ design is based on [Lightning Memory-Mapped
Database](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightning_Memory-Mapped_Database).
Initial development was going in
[ReOpenLDAP](https://github.com/leo-yuriev/ReOpenLDAP) project. About a
year later libmdbx was isolated to separate project, which was
[presented at Highload++ 2015
conference](http://www.highload.ru/2015/abstracts/1831.html).

Since early 2017 _libmdbx_ is used in [Fast Positive Tables](https://github.com/leo-yuriev/libfpta),
and development is funded by [Positive Technologies](https://www.ptsecurity.com).

### Acknowledgments
Howard Chu <hyc@openldap.org> is the author of LMDB, from which
originated the MDBX in 2015.

Martin Hedenfalk <martin@bzero.se> is the author of `btree.c` code, which
was used for begin development of LMDB.

-----

Description
===========

## Key features

_libmdbx_ inherits all features and characteristics from
[LMDB](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightning_Memory-Mapped_Database):

1. Key-value pairs are stored in ordered map(s), keys are always sorted,
range lookups are supported.

2. Data is [memory-mapped](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory-mapped_file)
into each worker DB process, and could be accessed zero-copy from transactions.

3. Transactions are
[ACID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACID)-compliant, through to
[MVCC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiversion_concurrency_control)
and [CoW](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copy-on-write). Writes are
strongly serialized and aren't blocked by reads, transactions can't
conflict with each other. Reads are guaranteed to get only commited data
([relaxing serializability](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serializability#Relaxing_serializability)).

4. Read transactions are
[non-blocking](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-blocking_algorithm),
don't use [atomic operations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linearizability#High-level_atomic_operations).
Readers don't block each other and aren't blocked by writers. Read
performance scales linearly with CPU core count.
  > Nonetheless, "connect to DB" (starting the first read transaction in a thread) and
  > "disconnect from DB" (closing DB or thread termination) requires a lock
  > acquisition to register/unregister at the "readers table".

5. Keys with multiple values are stored efficiently without key
duplication, sorted by value, including integers (valuable for
secondary indexes).

6. Efficient operation on short fixed length keys,
including 32/64-bit integer types.

7. [WAF](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Write_amplification) (Write
Amplification Factor) и RAF (Read Amplification Factor) are Olog(N).

8. No [WAL](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Write-ahead_logging) and
transaction journal. In case of a crash no recovery needed. No need for
regular maintenance. Backups can be made on the fly on working DB
without freezing writers.

9. No additional memory management, all done by basic OS services.


## Improvements over LMDB

1. Automatic dynamic DB size management according to the parameters
specified by `mdbx_env_set_geometry()` function. Including
growth step and truncation threshold, as well as the choice of page
size.

2. Automatic returning of freed pages into unallocated space at the end
of database file, with optionally automatic shrinking it. This reduces
amount of pages resides in RAM and circulated in disk I/O. In fact
_libmdbx_ constantly performs DB compactification, without spending
additional resources for that.

3. `LIFO RECLAIM` mode:

    The newest pages are picked for reuse instead of the oldest. This allows
    to minimize reclaim loop and make it execution time independent of total
    page count.

    This results in OS kernel cache mechanisms working with maximum
    efficiency. In case of using disk controllers or storages with
    [BBWC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_buffer#Write_acceleration)
    this may greatly improve write performance.

4. Fast estimation of range query result size via functions
`mdbx_estimate_range()`, `mdbx_estimate_move()` and
`mdbx_estimate_distance()`. E.g. for selection the optimal query
execution plan.

5. `mdbx_chk` tool for DB integrity check.

6. Support for keys and values of zero length, including multi-values
(aka sorted duplicates).

7. Ability to assign up to 3 persistent 64-bit markers to commiting
transaction with `mdbx_canary_put()` and then get them in read
transaction by `mdbx_canary_get()`.

8. Ability to update or delete record and get previous value via
`mdbx_replace()`. Also allows update the specific item from multi-value
with the same key.

9. Sequence generation via `mdbx_dbi_sequence()`.

10. `OOM-KICK` callback.

    `mdbx_env_set_oomfunc()` allows to set a callback, which will be called
    in the event of DB space exhausting during long-time read transaction in
    parallel with extensive updating. Callback will be invoked with PID and
    pthread_id of offending thread as parameters. Callback can do any of
    these things to remedy the problem:

    * wait for read transaction to finish normally;

    * kill the offending process (signal 9), if separate process is doing
    long-time read;

    * abort or restart offending read transaction if it's running in sibling
    thread;

    * abort current write transaction with returning error code.

11. Ability to open DB in exclusive mode by `MDBX_EXCLUSIVE` flag.

12. Ability to get how far current read-transaction snapshot lags
from the latest version of the DB by `mdbx_txn_straggler()`.

13. Ability to explicitly update the existing record, not insertion
a new one. Implemented as `MDBX_CURRENT` flag for `mdbx_put()`.

14. Fixed `mdbx_cursor_count()`, which returns correct count of
duplicated (aka multi-value) for all cases and any cursor position.

15. `mdbx_env_info()` to getting additional info, including number of
the oldest snapshot of DB, which is used by someone of the readers.

16. `mdbx_del()` doesn't ignore additional argument (specifier) `data`
for tables without duplicates (without flag `MDBX_DUPSORT`), if `data`
is not null then always uses it to verify record, which is being
deleted.

17. Ability to open dbi-table with simultaneous with race-free setup
of comparators for keys and values, via `mdbx_dbi_open_ex()`.

18. `mdbx_is_dirty()`to find out if given key or value is on dirty page, that
useful to avoid copy-out before updates.

19. Correct update of current record in `MDBX_CURRENT` mode of
`mdbx_cursor_put()`, including sorted duplicated.

20. Check if there is a row with data after current cursor position via
`mdbx_cursor_eof()`.

21. Additional error code `MDBX_EMULTIVAL`, which is returned by
`mdbx_put()` and `mdbx_replace()` in case is ambiguous update or delete.

22. Ability to get value by key and duplicates count by `mdbx_get_ex()`.

23. Functions `mdbx_cursor_on_first()` and `mdbx_cursor_on_last()`,
which allows to check cursor is currently on first or last position
respectively.

24. Automatic creation of steady commit-points (flushing data to the
disk) when the volume of changes reaches a threshold, which can be
set by `mdbx_env_set_syncbytes()`.

25. Control over debugging and receiving of debugging messages via
`mdbx_setup_debug()`.

26. Function `mdbx_env_pgwalk()` for page-walking the DB.

27. Three meta-pages instead of two, that allows to guarantee
consistency of data when updating weak commit-points without the
risk of damaging the last steady commit-point.

28. Guarantee of DB integrity in `WRITEMAP+MAPSYNC` mode:
  > Current _libmdbx_ gives a choice of safe async-write mode (default)
  > and `UTTERLY_NOSYNC` mode which may result in full
  > DB corruption during system crash as with LMDB. For details see
  > [Data safety in async-write mode](#data-safety-in-async-write-mode).

29. Ability to close DB in "dirty" state (without data flush and
creation of steady synchronization point) via `mdbx_env_close_ex()`.

30. If read transaction is aborted via `mdbx_txn_abort()` or
`mdbx_txn_reset()` then DBI-handles, which were opened during it,
will not be closed or deleted. In several cases this allows
to avoid hard-to-debug errors.

31. All cursors in all read and write transactions can be reused by
`mdbx_cursor_renew()` and MUST be freed explicitly.
  > ## Caution, please pay attention!
  >
  > This is the only change of API, which changes semantics of cursor management
  > and can lead to memory leaks on misuse. This is a needed change as it eliminates ambiguity
  > which helps to avoid such errors as:
  >  - use-after-free;
  >  - double-free;
  >  - memory corruption and segfaults.


32. On **Mac OS X** the `fcntl(F_FULLFSYNC)` syscall is used _by
default_ to synchronize data with the disk, as this is [the only way to
guarantee data
durability](https://developer.apple.com/library/archive/documentation/System/Conceptual/ManPages_iPhoneOS/man2/fsync.2.html)
in case of power failure. Unfortunately, in scenarios with high write
intensity, the use of `F_FULLFSYNC` significant degrades performance
compared to LMDB, where the `fsync()` syscall is used. Therefore,
_libmdbx_ allows you to override this behavior by defining the
`MDBX_OSX_SPEED_INSTEADOF_DURABILITY=1` option while build the library.

33. On **Windows** the `LockFileEx()` syscall is used for locking, since
it allows place the database on network drives, and provides protection
against incompetent user actions (aka
[poka-yoke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poka-yoke)). Therefore
_libmdbx_ may be a little lag in performance tests from LMDB where a
named mutexes are used.


## Gotchas

1. There cannot be more than one writer at a time. This allows serialize an
updates and eliminate any possibility of conflicts, deadlocks or logical errors.

2. No [WAL](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Write-ahead_logging) means
relatively big [WAF](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Write_amplification)
(Write Amplification Factor). Because of this syncing data to disk might
be quite resource intensive and be main performance bottleneck during
intensive write workload.
  > As compromise _libmdbx_ allows several modes of lazy and/or periodic
  > syncing, including `MAPASYNC` mode, which modificate data in memory and
  > asynchronously syncs data to disk, moment to sync is picked by OS.
  >
  > Although this should be used with care, synchronous transactions in a DB
  > with transaction journal will require 2 IOPS minimum (probably 3-4 in
  > practice) because of filesystem overhead, overhead depends on
  > filesystem, not on record count or record size. In _libmdbx_ IOPS count
  > will grow logarithmically depending on record count in DB (height of B+
  > tree) and will require at least 2 IOPS per transaction too.

3. [CoW](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copy-on-write) for
[MVCC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiversion_concurrency_control)
is done on memory page level with
[B+trees](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE).
Therefore altering data requires to copy about Olog(N) memory pages,
which uses [memory bandwidth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_bandwidth) and is main
performance bottleneck in `MAPASYNC` mode.
  > This is unavoidable, but isn't that bad. Syncing data to disk requires
  > much more similar operations which will be done by OS, therefore this is
  > noticeable only if data sync to persistent storage is fully disabled.
  > _libmdbx_ allows to safely save data to persistent storage with minimal
  > performance overhead. If there is no need to save data to persistent
  > storage then it's much more preferable to use `std::map`.


4. _LMDB_ has a problem of long-time readers which degrades performance
and bloats DB.
  > _libmdbx_ addresses that, details below.

5. _LMDB_ is susceptible to DB corruption in `WRITEMAP+MAPASYNC` mode.
_libmdbx_ in `WRITEMAP+MAPASYNC` guarantees DB integrity and consistency
of data.
  > Additionally there is an alternative: `UTTERLY_NOSYNC` mode.
  > Details below.


### Problem of long-time reading
Garbage collection problem exists in all databases one way or another
(e.g. VACUUM in PostgreSQL). But in _libmdbx_ and LMDB it's even more
discernible because of high transaction rate and intentional internals
simplification in favor of performance.

Understanding the problem requires some explanation, but can be
difficult for quick perception. So is is reasonable
to simplify this as follows:

* Massive altering of data during a parallel long read operation may
exhaust the free DB space.

* If the available space is exhausted, any attempt to update the data
will cause a "MAP_FULL" error until a long read transaction is
completed.

* A good example of long readers is a hot backup or debugging of
a client application while retaining an active read transaction.

* In _LMDB_ this results in degraded performance of all operations of
writing data to persistent storage.

* _libmdbx_ has the `OOM-KICK` mechanism which allow to abort such
operations and the `LIFO RECLAIM` mode which addresses performance
degradation.

### Durability in asynchronous writing mode
In `WRITEMAP+MAPSYNC` mode updated (aka dirty) pages are written to
persistent storage by the OS kernel. This means that if the application
fails, the OS kernel will finish writing all updated data to disk and
nothing will be lost. However, in the case of hardware malfunction or OS
kernel fatal error, only some updated data can be written to disk and
the database structure is likely to be destroyed. In such situation, DB
is completely corrupted and can't be repaired.

_libmdbx_ addresses this by fully reimplementing write path of data:

* In `WRITEMAP+MAPSYNC` mode meta-data pages aren't updated in place,
instead their shadow copies are used and their updates are synced after
data is flushed to disk.

* During transaction commit _libmdbx_ marks it as a steady or weak
depending on synchronization status between RAM and persistent storage.
For instance, in the `WRITEMAP+MAPSYNC` mode committed transactions
are marked as weak by default, but as steady after explicit data flushes.

* _libmdbx_ maintains three separate meta-pages instead of two. This
allows to commit transaction as steady or weak without losing two
previous commit points (one of them can be steady, and another
weak). Thus, after a fatal system failure, it will be possible to
rollback to the last steady commit point.

* During DB open _libmdbx_ rollbacks to the last steady commit point,
this guarantees database integrity after a crash. However, if the
database opening in read-only mode, such rollback cannot be performed
which will cause returning the MDBX_WANNA_RECOVERY error.

For data integrity a pages which form database snapshot with steady
commit point, must not be updated until next steady commit point.
Therefore the last steady commit point creates an effect analogues to
"long-time read". The only difference that now in case of space
exhaustion the problem will be immediately addressed by writing changes
to disk and forming the new steady commit point.

So in async-write mode _libmdbx_ will always use new pages until the
free DB space will be exhausted or `mdbx_env_sync()` will be invoked,
and the total write traffic to the disk will be the same as in
sync-write mode.

Currently libmdbx gives a choice between a safe async-write mode
(default) and `UTTERLY_NOSYNC` mode which may lead to DB corruption
after a system crash, i.e. like the LMDB.

Next version of _libmdbx_ will be automatically create steady commit
points in async-write mode upon completion transfer data to the disk.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Usage
=====

## Building

To build on all platforms except Windows the prerequirements are the
same: non-obsolete versions of GNU Make,
[bash](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bash_(Unix_shell)), C and C++
compilers compatible with GCC or CLANG. On Windows you will need only :
Microsoft Visual Studio 2015 or later, Windows SDK for Windows 8 or
later.

Historically, the libmdbx builing is based on single
[Makefile](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makefile) which assumes
different recipes depending on target platform. In the next versions, it
is planned to switch to [CMake](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMake),
with the refusal to support other tools.

#### DSO/DLL unloading and destructors of Thread-Local-Storage objects
When building _libmdbx_ as a shared library or use static _libmdbx_ as a
part of another dynamic library, it is advisable to make sure that your
system ensures the correctness of the call destructors of
Thread-Local-Storage objects when unloading dynamic libraries'.

If this is not the case, then unloading a dynamic-link library with
_libmdbx_ code inside, can result in either a resource leak or a crash
due to calling destructors from an already unloaded DSO/DLL object. The
problem can only manifest in a multithreaded application, which makes
the unloading of shared dynamic libraries with _libmdbx_ code inside,
after using _libmdbx_. It is known that TLS-destructors are properly
maintained in the following cases:

- On all modern versions of Windows (Windows 7 and later).

- On systems with the
[`__cxa_thread_atexit_impl()`](https://sourceware.org/glibc/wiki/Destructor%20support%20for%20thread_local%20variables)
function in the standard C library, including systems with GNU libc
version 2.18 and later.

- On systems with libpthread/ntpl from GNU libc with bug fixes
[#21031](https://sourceware.org/bugzilla/show_bug.cgi?id=21031) and
[#21032](https://sourceware.org/bugzilla/show_bug.cgi?id=21032), or
where there are no similar bugs in the pthreads implementation.

### Linux and other platforms with GNU Make
To build the library it is enough to execute `make all` in the directory
of source code, and `make check` for execute the basic tests.

If the `make` installed on the system is not GNU Make, there will be a
lot of errors from make when trying to build. In this case, perhaps you
should use `gmake` instead of `make`, or even `gnu-make`, etc.

### FreeBSD and related platforms
As a rule, in such systems, the default is to use Berkeley Make. And GNU
Make is called by the gmake command or may be missing. In addition,
[bash](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bash_(Unix_shell)) may be absent.

You need to install the required components: GNU Make, bash, C and C++
compilers compatible with GCC or CLANG. After that, to build the
library, it is enough execute `gmake all` (or `make all`) in the
directory with source code, and `gmake check` (or `make check`) to run
the basic tests.

### Windows
For building _libmdbx_ on Windows the [Microsoft Visual
Studio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Visual_Studio) is
recommended, but not tools such as MinGW, MSYS, or Cygwin. To do this,
the libmdbx source code includes the set of appropriate project files
that are compatible with Visual Studio 2015, the Windows SDK for Windows
8.1, and later. Just open `mdbx.sln` in Visual Studio and build the
library.

To build with newer versions of the SDK or Visual Studio, it should be
sufficient to execute "Retarget solution". To build for older versions
of Windows (such as Windows XP) or by older compilers, you will need to
convert or recreate the corresponding project files yourself.

Building by MinGW, MSYS or Cygwin is potentially possible. However,
these scripts are not tested and will probably require you to modify the
Makefile. It should be noted that in _libmdbx_ was efforts to resolve
runtime dependencies from CRT and other libraries Visual Studio.
For this is enough define the `MDBX_AVOID_CRT` during build.

An example of running a basic test script can be found in the
[CI-script](appveyor.yml) for [AppVeyor](https://www.appveyor.com/). To
run the [long stochastic test scenario](test/long_stochastic.sh),
[bash](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bash_(Unix_shell)) is required, and
the such testing is recommended with place the test data on the
[RAM-disk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM_drive).

### MacOS X
Current [native build tools](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xcode) for
MacOS X include GNU Make, CLANG and an outdated version of bash.
Therefore, to build the library, it is enough to run `make all` in the
directory with source code, and run `make check` to execute the base
tests. If something goes wrong, it is recommended to install
[Homebrew](https://brew.sh/) and try again.

To run the [long stochastic test scenario](test/long_stochastic.sh), you
will need to install the current (not outdated) version of
[bash](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bash_(Unix_shell)). To do this, we
recommend that you install [Homebrew](https://brew.sh/) and then execute
`brew install bash`.

## Bindings

  | Runtime  | GitHub | Author |
  | -------- | ------ | ------ |
  | Java     | [mdbxjni](https://github.com/castortech/mdbxjni)   | [Castor Technologies](https://castortech.com/) |
  | .NET     | [mdbx.NET](https://github.com/wangjia184/mdbx.NET) | [Jerry Wang](https://github.com/wangjia184) |


--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Performance comparison
======================

All benchmarks were done by [IOArena](https://github.com/pmwkaa/ioarena)
and multiple [scripts](https://github.com/pmwkaa/ioarena/tree/HL%2B%2B2015)
runs on Lenovo Carbon-2 laptop, i7-4600U 2.1 GHz, 8 Gb RAM,
SSD SAMSUNG MZNTD512HAGL-000L1 (DXT23L0Q) 512 Gb.

## Integral performance

Here showed sum of performance metrics in 3 benchmarks:

 - Read/Search on 4 CPU cores machine;

 - Transactions with [CRUD](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRUD)
 operations in sync-write mode (fdatasync is called after each
 transaction);

 - Transactions with [CRUD](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRUD)
 operations in lazy-write mode (moment to sync data to persistent storage
 is decided by OS).

*Reasons why asynchronous mode isn't benchmarked here:*

  1. It doesn't make sense as it has to be done with DB engines, oriented
  for keeping data in memory e.g. [Tarantool](https://tarantool.io/),
  [Redis](https://redis.io/)), etc.

  2. Performance gap is too high to compare in any meaningful way.

![Comparison #1: Integral Performance](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/wiki/leo-yuriev/libmdbx/img/perf-slide-1.png)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

## Read Scalability

Summary performance with concurrent read/search queries in 1-2-4-8
threads on 4 CPU cores machine.

![Comparison #2: Read Scalability](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/wiki/leo-yuriev/libmdbx/img/perf-slide-2.png)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

## Sync-write mode

 - Linear scale on left and dark rectangles mean arithmetic mean
 transactions per second;

 - Logarithmic scale on right is in seconds and yellow intervals mean
 execution time of transactions. Each interval shows minimal and maximum
 execution time, cross marks standard deviation.

**10,000 transactions in sync-write mode**. In case of a crash all data
is consistent and state is right after last successful transaction.
[fdatasync](https://linux.die.net/man/2/fdatasync) syscall is used after
each write transaction in this mode.

In the benchmark each transaction contains combined CRUD operations (2
inserts, 1 read, 1 update, 1 delete). Benchmark starts on empty database
and after full run the database contains 10,000 small key-value records.

![Comparison #3: Sync-write mode](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/wiki/leo-yuriev/libmdbx/img/perf-slide-3.png)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

## Lazy-write mode

 - Linear scale on left and dark rectangles mean arithmetic mean of
 thousands transactions per second;

 - Logarithmic scale on right in seconds and yellow intervals mean
 execution time of transactions. Each interval shows minimal and maximum
 execution time, cross marks standard deviation.

**100,000 transactions in lazy-write mode**. In case of a crash all data
is consistent and state is right after one of last transactions, but
transactions after it will be lost. Other DB engines use
[WAL](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Write-ahead_logging) or transaction
journal for that, which in turn depends on order of operations in
journaled filesystem. _libmdbx_ doesn't use WAL and hands I/O operations
to filesystem and OS kernel (mmap).

In the benchmark each transaction contains combined CRUD operations (2
inserts, 1 read, 1 update, 1 delete). Benchmark starts on empty database
and after full run the database contains 100,000 small key-value
records.


![Comparison #4: Lazy-write mode](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/wiki/leo-yuriev/libmdbx/img/perf-slide-4.png)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

## Async-write mode

 - Linear scale on left and dark rectangles mean arithmetic mean of
 thousands transactions per second;

 - Logarithmic scale on right in seconds and yellow intervals mean
 execution time of transactions. Each interval shows minimal and maximum
 execution time, cross marks standard deviation.

**1,000,000 transactions in async-write mode**. In case of a crash all
data will be consistent and state will be right after one of last
transactions, but lost transaction count is much higher than in
lazy-write mode. All DB engines in this mode do as little writes as
possible on persistent storage. _libmdbx_ uses
[msync(MS_ASYNC)](https://linux.die.net/man/2/msync) in this mode.

In the benchmark each transaction contains combined CRUD operations (2
inserts, 1 read, 1 update, 1 delete). Benchmark starts on empty database
and after full run the database contains 10,000 small key-value records.

![Comparison #5: Async-write mode](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/wiki/leo-yuriev/libmdbx/img/perf-slide-5.png)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

## Cost comparison

Summary of used resources during lazy-write mode benchmarks:

 - Read and write IOPS;

 - Sum of user CPU time and sys CPU time;

 - Used space on persistent storage after the test and closed DB, but not
 waiting for the end of all internal housekeeping operations (LSM
 compactification, etc).

_ForestDB_ is excluded because benchmark showed it's resource
consumption for each resource (CPU, IOPS) much higher than other engines
which prevents to meaningfully compare it with them.

All benchmark data is gathered by
[getrusage()](http://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man2/getrusage.2.html)
syscall and by scanning data directory.

![Comparison #6: Cost comparison](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/wiki/leo-yuriev/libmdbx/img/perf-slide-6.png)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

```
$ objdump -f -h -j .text libmdbx.so

libmdbx.so:     file format elf64-x86-64
architecture: i386:x86-64, flags 0x00000150:
HAS_SYMS, DYNAMIC, D_PAGED
start address 0x0000000000003870

Sections:
Idx Name          Size      VMA               LMA               File off  Algn
 11 .text         000173d4  0000000000003870  0000000000003870  00003870  2**4
                  CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, READONLY, CODE

```